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Biology (general) Notes
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UNDER CONSTRUCTION
Chapter 1: Exploring & Classifying Life
Chapter 1-1 notes
(What is Science)
-
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: A series
of steps to solve problems
- State the
Problem
- Form a
HYPOTHESIS (a statement that can
be tested to solve the problem)
- Test your
hypothesis (experiment)
- Analyze your
data collected from testing
- Draw
Conclusions (if hypothesis is not solved, start over with a new
hypothesis until your problem has been solved)
-
VARIABLES: Items that can
cause changes in the outcome of an experiment. The fewer variables you
have, the better your experiment’s outcome.
-
CONTROL: What the test is
compared to, what does NOT change during the testing.
-
THEORY: A hypothesis that
has been tested many times, and is nearly fact, but can proved wrong in
the future.
-
LAW: A theory that has been
tested many times, and is fact.
- SI: The
International System of Units:
The way in which all countries measure objects; meter, liter, grams,
Celsius, etc.
Chapter 1-2 notes
(Living Things)
-
ORGANISM: Any living thing,
from one cell to millions of cells
-
CELL: The Basic unit of
life. All living things are made up of at least one cell.
-
HOMEOSTASIS: An organism’s
ability to keep the proper conditions inside no matter what is going on
outside (like a thermostat)
- HUMAN LIFE
EXPECTANCY: According to
latest figures and your book, the average life span of a human is now 80
years old.
- TRAITS OF
LIVING THINGS: all living
things share the following
- Are organized
(cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism)
- Respond to
stimuli (shiver, blink)
- Use Energy
(breathing, digesting, moving, all need energy)
- Grow (in size,
from small to large)
- Develop
(internal physiological & physical changes; puberty, tadpole – frog)
- Reproduce
(ability to make more of oneself)
- Need a place
to live
- Need raw
materials (food, nutrients)(60-70% of humans is water)
Chapter 1-3 notes
(Where does life come from)
-
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION: Life
coming from non-life. In the old days, people thought life came from
the mud, worms from the rain, and mice from grain.
- LOUIS PASTEUR:
Frenchman. Disproved Spontaneous Generation, believed in biogenesis.
(also had discoveries with bacteria and came up with pasteurization)
-
BIOGENESIS: Life coming from
life.
- EARTH:
4.6 billion years old (estimate)
- ALEXANDER
OPARIN: Russian Scientist:
earth’s early atmosphere had no oxygen but was made up of many deadly
gasses. Believe a combination of these gasses, lightning, and perfect
timing helped start “life” on Earth.
- STANLEY MILLER
& HAROLD UREY: American
Scientists: Made an Oparin model in 1953 to see if life began as he
thought.
- There is no true
answer to where life on Earth began. Until we have time machines, we’ll
really never know 100%.
Chapter 1-4 notes (How
are living things classified)
- ARISTOTLE:
1st to classify animals and plants into small groups.
(Greek, 2000 years ago)
- CAROLUS
LINNAEUS: Classified
organisms based on specific traits. Came up with the GENUS, SPECIES, &
KINGDOM subgroups
-
PHYLOGENY: The evolutionary
history of an organism.
-
SCIENTIFIC NAMES (binomial
nomenclature):
- Putting the
Genus and Species names together of an organism
- Always in
Italics (or underlined if handwritten)
- Words are in
Latin, so they never change
- The Genus is
capitalized, the Species is NOT.
- Homo
sapiens is the human
scientific name.
- 7 STEPS OF
CLASSIFICATION:
-
KINGDOM
- PHYLUM or
DIVISION (for plants)
- CLASS
- ORDER
- FAMILY
-
GENUS
- SPECIES
Chapter 2: Cells
Chapter 2-1 notes (cell
structure)
1)
CELL MEMBRANE:
Outer covering of the cell that allows some things in and out of the cell.
Gives cell its shape.
2)
CYTOPLASM:
Clear, jellylike liquid in which all the cell activities take place in.
3)
NUCLEUS:
Brain of the cell, controls most all of the cell functions.
4)
NUCLEOLUS:
Located inside the nucleus. This makes Ribosomes.
5)
RIBOSOME:
(dots) made in nucleolus, helps make proteins, found on the ER.
6)
CHROMOSOME:
Genetic information, DNA, 46 in each cell (23 in sex cells)
7)
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER): “Rough” with
ribosomes on it, “Smooth” without ribosomes. Canal network that acts like a
freeway for cell organelles.
8)
GOLGI BODY
(APPARATUS): Makes vesicles
(little boats) that transport materials out of and into the cell.
9)
MITOCHONDRIA:
Energy makers of the cell. The more of these in a cell, the more energy it
produces. A.K.A. breadbaskets, powerhouses.
10)
LYSOSOME:
Digestive organelles filled with acids. They go around and clean up the
cell of floating parts and debris. If a lysosome bursts, the cell will die.
11)
CYTOSKELETON:
Strands that keep the cell’s shape and structure (animal cell)
12)
CENTRIOLES:
Always found in pairs, right angles, and near the nucleus. During cell
division (Mitosis), they split up and go to each end of the cell. (animal
cell)
13)
CENTRAL VACUOLE:
Liquid filled closet for storing water and other items. Plants wilt when
vacuole’s get smaller or lose their water.
14)
CHLOROPLAST:
(plant cell only) These are the energy makers of a plant. They use sunlight
energy and convert it to a food source. Also produce Chlorophyll, which
gives the plant its green color.
15)
CELL WALL:
(plant cell only) The outer wall of a plant cell. Gives the plant cell
their rectangular shape. Not permeable.
16)
PROKARYOTE:
cell with no cell parts, only a chromosome like part and a cell wall.
Bacteria cells are an example of these simple cells.
17)
EUKARYOTE:
cell with cell parts (organelles), our cells are like this.
18)
ORGANELLE:
any of the small parts inside of the cell that perform a specific function.
Chapter 2-2 notes
(Viewing Cells)
·
MICROSCOPES
(4 kinds)
i.
COMPOUND LIGHT:
2000x, clear objects, most common
ii.
STEREO/DISSECTION:
100x, solid objects
iii.
SCANNING ELECTRON:
200,000x, scans the surface of objects
iv.
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON:
1,000,000x, scans into an object
·
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK:
Dutch, 1500’s, Eyeglass maker. He made the 1st microscope and
saw the first micro-organisms by looking at pond water.
·
ROBERT HOOKE:
Named the cell looking at cork slices in 1665.
·
ROBERT BROWN:
Found and named the nucleus of the cell.
·
SCHLEIDEN & SCHWANN:
came up with the first two steps of the cell theory.
·
VIRCHOW:
came up with step three of the cell theory.
·
CELL THEORY:
Series of three steps that detail facts on cells.
i.
Cell is the basic unit of life
ii.
All living things are made of at least one cell
iii.
All cells come from other cells.
Chapter 2-3 notes
(Viruses)
·
VIRUS:
i.
Not living or non-living
ii.
Genetic material surrounded by a protein coat.
iii.
Need living cells to function
iv.
NOT curable
·
Active virus:
Destroys cell immediately (cold/flu)
·
Latent virus:
copies itself in cells, dormant, then is triggered to attack later (cold
sores, herpes)
·
HOST:
Organism infected with a virus or parasite
·
VACCINE:
use of weakened or dead viruses to start an immune response in the body.
·
EDWARD JENNER:
made 1st vaccine for smallpox
·
BACTERIOPHAGE:
virus that attacks bacteria
·
ANTIBIOTICS:
used for bacterial infections, does not work on viruses.
·
How a virus works:
i.
Enters host cell
ii.
Virus genetic material persuades nucleus to make more viruses
iii.
Host cell only makes more viruses
iv.
Viruses explode out of the cell, killing it
v.
New viruses find new cells to infect
vi.
Your body will try to fight off viruses by making antibodies to stop
them
vii.
INTERFERON:
chemical made by cells to stop virus reproduction
Chapter 3: Cell Processes
Chapter 3-1 notes
(Chemistry of Life)
- MATTER:
Anything that takes up space and has mass.
- ENERGY:
Ability to cause change, what all organisms need
- ELECTRON:
Negative charge, surrounds an atom
- PROTON:
Positive charge, located inside the atom’s nucleus
- NEUTRON:
No charge, located inside the atom’s nucleus
- ATOM:
All matter is made of atoms, smallest thing matter can be
- ELEMENT:
When something is made up of only one kind of atom
- ION:
Electrically charged atoms – positive or negative – are called this.
- IONIC
COMPOUND: Ions of opposite
charges attract one another to form these electrically neutral compounds
- C.H.N.O.P.S.:
6 elements that make up over 97% of our bodies
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Nitrogen
- Oxygen
- Phosphorus
- Sulfur
- PERIODIC
TABLE: Lists all the known
elements with weight and numbers
-
MIXTURE: A combination of
substances in which individual items are still the same.
- SOLUTION:
This is a mixture that stays together and does NOT separate after
time.
- SUSPENSION:
A mixture in which the two substances will separate in time.
(oil & vinegar salad dressing)
-
ORGANIC COMPOUND: Compounds
that always contain hydrogen and carbon; carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids are organic compounds found in living
things.
-
INORGANIC COMPOUND:
Compound, such as H2O, that is made from elements other than carbon and
whose atoms usually can be arranged only in one structure.
-
ENZYME: A type of protein
that regulates nearly all chemical reactions in cells.
- CARBOHYDRATES:
Organic compound that supplies energy for cell processes. Sugars and
starches are high in this.
- LIPID:
Organic compound found in living things, do not mix with water, lipids
such as fats & oils provide large amounts of energy.
- PROTEINS:
Inorganic compound made up of amino acids and are the building blocks of
many structures in organisms.
- H2O:
Water, most important item on Earth. Over 50% of your body is made of
water.
Chapter 3-2 notes
(Moving Cellular Material)
-
DIFFUSION: A type of passive
transport in cells in which molecules move from area where there are
more of them to areas where there are fewer of them.
-
OSMOSIS: A type of passive
transport that occurs when water diffuses through a cell membrane.
- FACILITATED
DIFFUSION: A type of passive
transport where transport proteins pick up needed nutrients and take
them to and out of the cell, like a fast food drive thru.
-
PASSIVE TRANSPORT: Movement
of substances through a cell membrane without the use of cellular
energy; includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
-
EQUALIBRIUM: Occurs when
molecules of one substance are spread evenly throughout another
substance.
-
ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
Energy-requiring process in which transport proteins bind with particles
and move them through a cell membrane.
-
ENDOCYTOSIS: Process by
which a cell takes in a substance by surrounding it with the cell
membrane.
-
EXOCYTOSIS: Process by which
vesicles release their contents outside the cell.
Chapter 3-3 notes
(Energy for life)
-
METABOLISM: The total of all
chemical reactions in an organism. How your body uses its energy.
- PRODUCER:
Any organism that makes its own food: plants/trees are examples
-
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The
conversion of sunlight into energy. Producers use this with the help of
chloroplasts.
- CONSUMER:
Any organism that must take in food to get energy, we are consumers
-
RESPIRATION: Series of
chemical reactions used to release energy stored in food molecules.
-
FERMENTATION: Process by
which oxygen-lacking cells and some one-celled organisms release small
amounts of energy from glucose molecules and produce wastes such as
alcohol, carbon dioxide, and lactic acid.
- LACTID ACID:
by-product of fermentation, causes soreness in muscles for example.
-
Chapter 4: Cell Reproduction
Biology 4-1 notes (Cell
Division & Mitosis)
- Prokariotic
Cells: single cells without
a nucleus or cell parts; example: Bacteria
- Eukariotic
Cells: single cells that
have a nucleus and cell parts (organelles); example: protists, most of
our body cells.
- Life stages
of a cell. (Mitosis)
- INTERPHASE:
Longest stage, does its task, grows, & develops
- PROPHASE:
Chromatids visible, cell parts start migrating to opposite ends.
- METAPHASE:
Chromatids are now lined up in center of cell.
- ANAPHASE:
Chromatids separate.
- TELOPHASE:
Cytoplasm separates.
-
MITOSIS: Eukariotic
cell/nucleus division
-
CHROMOSOME: Structures in
nucleus that contain our genetic information.
- We have 23
pairs or 46 total chromosomes in each of our cells
- XY = BOY
- XX = GIRL
- Father decides
gender
-
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Reproduction from only one parent. Offspring are identical
copies/clones of the parent.
- BUDDING:
Form of Asexual reproduction where a new growth grows off the parent
-
REGENERATION: Form of
Asexual Reproduction where the parent splits into parts and each
part can become a new organism
- FISSION:
Prokariotic cell division. Similar to mitosis, but with bacteria cells
Chapter 4-2 notes
(Sexual Reproduction & Meiosis)
-
DIPLOID CELLS: Cells with a
matching pair of chromosomes. ie; Body cells, all cells except sex
cells. 46 in humans.
-
HAPLOID CELLS: Sex cells.
Have half the number of chromosomes than diploid cells. 23 in humans.
-
MEIOSIS: Process of cell
division that produces haploid cells or sex cells
-
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Reproduction by two parents. Egg & Sperm are needed
-
EGG: Female haploid cell/sex
cell/gamete
-
SPERM: Male haploid cell/sex
cell/gamete
-
FERTILIZATION: The joining
of egg and sperm making a ZYGOTE
o
ZYGOTE:
the newly fertilized egg. In humans, the zygote stage lasts about 2 weeks.
Chapter 4-3 notes (DNA)
- 1952: Rosalind
Franklin discovered DNA as two chains of molecules in spiral form
- 1953: Watson and
Crick make first model of DNA
- DNA (Deoxiribonucleic
Acid): Genetic material of all organisms.
- GENE: section of
DNA of a chromosome that contains instructions on building an organism
(proteins)
- NITROGEN BASES:
DNA is made up of 4 different nitrogen bases
o
C = Cytosine
o
G = Guanine
o
T = Thymine
o
A = Adenine
o
T/A are always together
o
C/G are always together
- RNA (Ribonucleic
Acid): Carries codes for making proteins from nucleus to ribosomes.
o
Has same bases as DNA, but…
o
U = Uracil (replaces T =
Thymin)
o
3 types of RNA
§
Messenger
§
Transfer
§
Ribosomal
- Mutation: Genetic
mistake in genes/DNA
-
Chapter 5: Heredity
Chapter 5-1 notes
(Genetics)
-
HEREDITY: The passing of
traits from parent to offspring.
-
ALLELE: An alternate
form that a gene may have for a single trait; can be dominant or
recessive.
-
GENETICS: The study of
how traits are inherited through the actions of alleles.
- GREGOR MENDEL:
- “Father of
Genetics”
- Austrian Monk
- Studied math
and science
- Became a
gardener in a monastery
- 1856 began
experimenting with garden peas
- First to
record a study of how traits pass from generation to generation
- Presented his
results eight years later
- His work was
laughed at, until 1900
-
HYBRID: An offspring
that was given different genetic information for a trait from each
parent.
-
DOMINANT: Describes a
trait that covers over, or dominates, another form of that trait.
-
RECESSIVE: Describes a
trait that is covered over, or dominated, by another form of that trait
and seems to disappear.
- PROBABILITY:
The chance of something
happening.
-
PUNNETT SQUARE: A tool
to predict the probability of certain traits in offspring that shows the
different ways alleles can combine.
-
GENOTYPE: An organism’s
genetic makeup.
-
PHENOTYPE: Outward
physical appearance and behavior of an organism.
-
HOMOZYGOUS: Describes an
organism with two alleles that are the same for a trait.
-
HETEROZYGOUS: Describes
an organism with two different alleles for a trait.
Chapter 5-2 notes
(Genetics Since Mendel)
-
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE:
Production of a phenotype that is intermediate between the two
homozygous parents.
-
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE:
Occurs when a group of gene pairs acts together and preduces a spedific
trait, such as human eye color, skin color, or height.
- DOWNS SYNDROME:
Disorder where there is an extra (a third) 21st chromosome.
-
SEX-LINKED GENE: An
allele inherited on a sex chromosome; can cause human genetic disorders
such as color blindness and hemophilia.
- XX CHROMOSOME:
Is a girl
- XY CHROMOSOME:
Is a boy
- PEDIGREE:
A visual tool for following a trait through generations of a family.
Chapter 5-3 notes
(Advances in Genetics)
-
GENETIC ENGINEERING:
The experimenting with biological and chemical methods to change the
arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene.
- RECOMBINANT
DNA: When a useful segment
of DNA is inserted from one organism into a bacteria cell. Large
quantities of insulin are made this way.
- GENE THERAPY:
A normal allele is placed in a virus, which delivers the normal allele
when it infects its target cell. A form of genetic engineering.
- SELECTIVE
BREEDING: Choosing the best
of a species and mating them in hopes of getting the best offspring.
-
Chapter 6: Adaptations over Time
Chapter 7: Bacteria
Chapter 7-1 notes (What
are Bacteria)
- PROKARYOTIC
CELL: Single celled organism
with no organelles.
- BACTERIA:
Prokaryotic, single celled organism
- Discovered by
Anton Van Leevwanhoek
- 3 shapes
- ROD
(Bacillus)
- ROUND (Cocci)
- SPRIAL
(Spirillum)
- Can live
anywhere
- Reproduce by
Fission
-
FISSION:
The dividing of a bacteria cell, form of reproduction
-
FLAGELLA:
Tail like structure that whips back and forth for motion.
- CILIA:
Tiny hair-like structures that flutter back and forth causing
motion.
-
AEROBE: Any organism
that uses oxygen for respiration, most kinds of bacteria are this type.
-
ANAEROBE: Any organism
that is able to live without oxygen. Some live in our intestines
-
EUBACTERIA: Most common form
of bacteria.
-
Comes in both PRODUCER EUBACTERIA &
CONSUMER EUBACTERIA
-
Producer Eubacteria example;
CYANOBACTERIA or blue/green bacteria
-
Produce much of our oxygen
-
If grown unchecked
can cause death to the life in the water.
-
ARCHAEBACTERIA:
Old Bacteria
-
Live in conditions similar to early Earth (acid, salt, heat), but
exist today
-
Produce METHANE gas (swamps, our digestive system)
Chapter
7-2 notes (Bacteria in your Life)
-
Beneficial (Good) Bacteria:
-
Bacteria in intestines make Vitamin K (for blood clotting)
-
ANTIBIOTICS:
bacteria used to fight bacterial infections and diseases.
-
SAPROPHYTES:
bacteria that feed off of dead organisms and return good nutrients
back to the soil.
-
NITROGEN FIXING
BACTERIA:
Attach to the roots of some plants (Pea’s, Peanuts) and absorb
nitrogen that our bodies use when we eat these plants.
-
BIOREMEDIATION: Using bacteria to clean the environment. Used on
oil spills
-
FOOD: Many food products are given flavor or changed due to
bacteria (Milk, Cheese, Pickles)
-
HARMFUL (Bad) Bacteria:
-
PATHOGEN:
Any organism that causes disease (bacteria, virus)
-
TOXINS:
Poisonous substances released by bacteria, can cause food poisoning
(botulism)
-
ENDOSPORES:
Thick-walled, protective structure produced by a pathogen when
conditions are unfavorable for survival. Like a bomb shelter.
- Misc Bacteria
facts:
-
PASTEURIZATION: The
heating of liquids (milk) to a temperature where most harmful
bacteria are killed, but leaving the food item unchanged in taste.
-
VACCINE:
Preparation made from killed bacteria or damaged particles from
bacterial cell walls that can prevent some bacterial diseases (dead
or weakened viruses used for viral disease vaccinations)
-
Chapter 17: Structure & Movement
Chapter notes 17-1 (The
Skeletal System)
-
SKELETAL SYSTEM:
- 206 bones in
human adult skeleton
- All the bones
of the body and how they perform their 5 functions
- FIVE FUNCTIONS
OF BONES:
- Shape and
support the body
- Protect
internal organs
- Muscles attach
to bones to move them
- Blood cells
are formed in the marrow inside of many bones
- Calcium and
phosphorous are stored inside bones
-
PERIOSTEUM: Outer
membrane of a bone. Blood vessels, nerves and cells for growth and
repair are here. This is where you get a “bone bruise”
- COMPACT BONE:
The midsection of bones re made of strong/thick solid bone
- SPONGY BONE:
Found on the ends of long bones. Light weight (birds), but just as
strong as compact bone
-
CARTILAGE: Tough fibrous
connective tissue that is found at bone joints. Keeps bones moving and
acts as shock absorbers.
-
LIGAMENT: Tough fibrous
connective tissue that attaches bone to bone at a joint (keeps bones in
place)
- JOINT:
Where two or more bones meet (articulate)
- The Hyoid bone
is the only bone in your body that does not meet up with any other
bone at a joint
- HINGE
JOINT: Back and forth
motion, (elbow & knee)
- BALL &
SOCKET JOINT: Full range
of motion, (shoulder & hip)
- FIXED
JOINT: immovable joint
(22 bones of skull)
- GLIDING
JOINT: bones gliding
along other bones (wrist & ankle)
- PIVOT
JOINT: quick sharp turns
(neck)
Chapter notes 17-2 (The
Muscular System)
- THE MUSCULAR
SYSTEM (MUSCLE)
- Over 600
muscles in the human adult
- All the
muscles in your body to perform its needed functions.
- Three
different kinds of muscles
- Muscles
CONTRACT when they are working
- A muscles job
is to move something (blood, body, food)
-
SKELETAL MUSCLE:
- One of three
types of muscle
- Voluntary
muscle
- Most abundant
in body
- Move bones
-
CARDIAC MUSCLE:
- One of three
types of muscle
- Involuntary
muscle
- Moves blood
through heart and into body
- Heart
-
SMOOTH MUSCLE:
- One of three
types of muscles
- Involuntary
muscle
- Moves food and
blood cells
- Digestive
system, blood vessel walls
-
VOLUNTARY MUSCLE:
Muscles that you control
-
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE:
Muscles that you don’t consciously control
-
TENDON: Thick bands of
tissue that connect muscle to bone and pull the bone when that muscle
contracts.
- MOVEMENT OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE:
- Muscles move
when they contract, or get shorter/compacted)
- A tendon is
attached to a muscle and bone. When the muscle contracts it pulls
the bone that the tendon is attached to, causing motion.
- It takes
oxygen and energy to cause contraction of muscles
- If no oxygen,
your muscles can use other forms of energy, but soreness (lactic
acid build-up) will result due to your oxygen deprived muscles.
- FATIGUE:
Eventually, the muscle will give out and will not be able to
contract
Chapter notes 17-3 (Integumentary System - SKIN)
- SKIN:
- Largest organ
of the body (next to the liver)
- Waterproofs
the skin (keeps water in and out)
- Keeps body
temperature a constant by keeping or releasing body heat
- Makes vitamin
D using sunlight
- Holds our
sense organs of touch, pain, hot, cold, and pressure
-
EPIDERMIS:
- Upper layer of
skin (dead on top)
- New skin cells
are made at the base of the epidermis and push upwards
-
DERMIS:
- Lower and
thicker layer of skin
- Contains
nerves, blood vessels, sweat glands, and hot/cold receptors
- Fat layer is
under the dermis
-
MELANIN
- Pigment of the
skin, gives the skin its color
- Protects the
body from the sun’s rays
- Produces
melanocytes that cause the darkening of the skin, the more you have
the darker you are.
- BURNS:
- 1st
degree: Epidermis is damaged, pain, and redness (sunburn)
- 2nd
degree: Epidermis is burnt away, blistering to save internal fluids
and protect against microbe invasion. Very painful due to pain
receptors closer to outside. Scarring when healed.
- 3rd
degree: Epidermis and Dermis destroyed. Blistering does not occur,
microbe invasion/infection high, loss of bodily fluids, pain
receptor gone, can be fatal depending on extent. Skin grafting
needed
- SCAR TISSUE:
- Tissue that
can grow faster than skin to heal a wound that is needed to be
healed faster than skin can grow.
- Does not
contain hair follicles, pain receptors, or temperature receptors
-
Chapter 18: Nutrients & Digestion
Chapter notes 18-1
(Nutrition)
-
NUTRIENTS:
Substances in foods that our body must have for energy, cell growth, and
repair. There are six different nutrients that our body needs.
-
CARBOHYDRATES:
Main source of energy. Made of carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen. Energy
holds the three together. When we break down carbohydrates, we take the
energy holding the three together for our own energy.
- Sugars:
Simple carbohydrates, quick energy, candy, fruit
- Starches:
Complex carbohydrates, long lasting energy, pasta, potatoes
- Fiber:
Complex carbohydrates, can’t be digested but are needed.
Vegetables, wheat
-
FAT:
Back up energy source. Used only when carbohydrates are depleted.
Helps body absorb vitamins and insulates the body keeping it warm. Has
twice the energy ability than carbohydrates. You lose weight when you
burn off fat.
- Saturated
Fat: Found in fish, meat. High levels of cholesterol
- Unsaturated
Fat: Found in cooking oils
-
PROTEIN:
Used for growth of body cells and tissue repair
-
AMINO ACID:
building blocks of protein. 8 essential amino acids. Eggs, milk,
cheese, meat, & vegetables
-
VITAMINS:
Organic nutrient used in small quantities for growth, regulating body
functions, and preventing some diseases. We get most of ours in the
food we eat, but not all.
- Water-Soluable:
Need to be replenished every day because they are excreted by the
body. B, C
- Fat-Soluable:
Stored in the body in fatty tissue. A D E K
-
MINERALS:
Inorganic nutrients that lac carbon and regulat many chemical reactions
in your body. Need about 14 different minerals
- WATER:
- Most important
item on Earth
- Human is made
up of 60% water (2/3 in your cells)
- Must take in 2
liters of water a day because you lose 2 liters a day
- Could only
live a few days without water
-
FOOD GROUPS:
Foods that belong to the same type of nutrient group. 5 groups
- Breads &
Cereals (Grain)
- Fruits
- Vegetables
- Milk & Cheese
(Dairy)
- Meat & Poultry
- Other (Fats &
Oils) * Not a real group, but should be considered one)
- BALANCED DIET:
Eating the right amount of the right foods on a daily basis
- SERVING SIZE:
The amount of a specific food item that should be served to a single
person. A box of macaroni and cheese has 3 servings (although we
usually eat the whole box)
Chapter notes 18-2 (The
Digestive System)
-
DIGESTION: The ability
to breakdown food items into smaller, molecular components so that our
body can absorb the needed nutrients in them.
-
MECHANICAL DIGESTION
(physical change): The changing of food’s size and or shape. Chewing,
stomach churning, emulsification.
-
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
(chemical change). The use of chemicals in the body to break down large
molecules of food into smaller ones. The use of enzymes assists in
this.
-
ENZYME: A type of
protein that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction in your body.
We produce specific digestive enzymes which help us digest our food and
absorb fat, carbohydrates, and protein.
- THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM:
- MOUTH:
- Organ
where food begins its digestive trip
- TEETH:
- Chew food
(mastication)
- Mechanical
Digestion
- TONGUE:
- Strongest
muscle in body (by size ratio)
- Moves food
around for chewing and swallowing
- BOLUS:
the ball of food that we swallow
- SALIVARY
GLANDS
- 3 pair for
6 total
- Secret
Saliva
- Enzyme
salivary amylase chemically digests Carbohydrates.
- EPIGLOTTIS
- Flap of
skin that covers up your trachea (windpipe) when you swallow so
food does not go down “the wrong pipe”
- ESOPHAGUS
- Food tube,
connects the pharynx (throat) to the stomach
-
PERISTALSIS:
The muscular contractions of your digestive system to move food
along.
- STOMACH
- “J” shaped
organ that mixes and churns food (mechanical digestion)
- Food stays
in the stomach for about 4 hours
- Enzyme
Pepsin secreted to chemically digest protein
-
Hydrochloric Acid secreted to liquefy solids
- Liquid,
pasty material in stomach is called
CHYME
- SMALL
INTESTINE
- Majority
of all chemical digestion occurs here.
- 4-7 meters
in length (about 15-20 feet)
-
VILLI:
fingerlike projections inside of small intestine that absorb
nutrients
- Broken up
into three sections
- APPENDIX
- Vestigal
structure
- Located
between small and large intestine
- LARGE
INTESTINE
- Does not
digest food
- Absorbs
water
-
Constipation (too much water absorbed)
-
Diarrhea (too little water absorbed)
- Uses
bacteria in it to make Vitamin K
- Divided
into sections:
-
CECUM
-
ASCENDING COLON
-
TRANSVERSE COLON
-
DESCENDING COLON
-
SIGMOID COLON
-
RECTUM
- ANUS
- Where
undigested food leaves the body
- LIVER
- Accessory
organ
- Produces
BILE: greenish fluid that emulsifies fat (breaks it down
mechanically so it can be chemically digested easier)
- Sends bile
into the first part of the small intestine
- GALL
BLADDER
- Accessory
organ
- Stores
excess bile
- PANCREAS
- Accessory
organ
- Produces
three different enzymes that secret into the first part of the
small intestine
- Typsin
(Protein)
- Lipase
(fat)
-
Pancreatic Amylase (carbohydrates)
-
Chapter 19: Circulation
Chapter notes 19-1 & 19-2 (The Circulatory System &
Blood)
·
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: “The Pickup and Delivery system”
consists of your hear, blood vessels, and blood and how they move throughout
your body picking up and delivering waste and needed items.
-
CORONARY CIRCULATION:
The flow of blood from the heart to the heart tissue. The heart muscle
needs oxygen too and this is the system that provides it.
-
PULMONARY CIRCULATION:
The flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
This is the system that delivers blood low in oxygen to the lungs to
pick up needed oxygen, then back to the heart to be pumped out to the
body.
-
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION:
The flow of blood to the entire body. This system delivers oxygen rich
blood to the entire body and then takes the oxygen poor blood back to
the heart so it can get more oxygen.
Use the words and numbers below to help you
with your heart drawing.
1)
AORTA:
Largest artery/blood vessel in the body. Takes blood high in oxygen to the
whole body.
2)
ARTERY:
blood vessels that take blood away from the heart, have thick walls, under
high pressure, rounded, no valves.
3)
BI-CUSPID VALVE:
One way valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Pushes blood
that is high in oxygen.
4)
CAPILLARY:
Smallest of the blood vessels. Where the pickup and delivery of nutrients
and waste take place.
5, 16) INFERIOR & SUPERIOR VENA CAVA:
The vena cava is the largest vein in the body. It takes blood low
in oxygen back to the heart (the right atrium). The inferior is on bottom
and the superior is on top.
6)
LEFT
ATRIUM:
Chamber of the heart that pumps blood high in oxygen. Receives blood from
the pulmonary vein and pushes blood into the left ventricle.
7)
LEFT
VENTRICLE:
Chamber of the heart that pumps blood high in oxygen. Strongest chamber of
the heart. Pumps blood through the semi-lunar valve and out of the heart
and to the body.
8)
PLASMA:
Liquid, non-living part of blood. 92% water, 8% hormones, salts, and
proteins.
9)
PLATELETS:
Part of the living component of blood. Are cell fragments, 200,000 in a
drop of blood. Help in blood clotting. Also called Thrombocytes
10)
PULMONARY ARTERY:
Blood vessel taking blood low in oxygen from the right ventricle to the
lungs so it can pick p more oxygen.
11)
PULMONARY VEIN:
blood vessel taking blood high in oxygen from the lungs to the left atrium
12)
RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC’s):
Carry oxygen to the body tissues. Donut shaped with no nucleus. 5million
in a drop of blood. HEMOGLOBIN
is a molecule that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. HEMOGLOBIN is found
on the red blood cells which allows the red blood cells to carry oxygen.
13)
RIGHT
ATRIUM:
Chamber of the heart that pumps blood low in oxygen. Receives blood from
the vena cava and pushes it through the tricuspid valve and into the right
ventricle.
14)
RIGHT
VENTRICLE:
Chamber of the heart that pumps blood low in oxygen. Pumps blood through
the semi-lunar valve and into the pulmonary artery so that it can go to the
lungs to get oxygen.
15)
SEMI-LUNAR VALVE:
A pair of valves, on each side of the heart. They are one way valves that
keep blood flowing in one direction (out of the heart). The two ventricles
pump blood through these valves.
17)
TRI-CUSPID VALVE: One way
valve that connects the right atrium to the right ventricle. (tri is on the
ri)
18)
VEIN:
Blood vessels that take blood towards the heart, have thin walls, under low
pressure, flattened, have valves to keep blood flowing in one direction.
19)
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC’s):
Main components of our immune system. Five different kinds. About 8,000
per drop of blood. Larger than RBC’s. Have a nucleus.
Use the terms below
to help you with your homework and your chapter test.
-
ATHEROSCLEROSIS: A leading
cause of heart disease. Fatty deposits build up on arterial walls.
These deposits (Plaque) can block an artery and stop blood flow
- HYPERTENSION
(high blood pressure):
Atherosclerosis can cause this. When the heart is pumping blood through
the body at a fast rate, causing the heart to work harder and the
pressure on the arteries to rise.
- HEART ATTACK
(Myocardial Infarction):
When part of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen being delivered
to it.
- BLOOD TYPES:
The ABO system of blood typing
- A
(very common blood type)
- B
- AB
(universal plasma donor)
- O
(universal blood donor)(most common blood type)
- RH FACTOR:
The + or – on the blood types. Only important to expecting mothers,
and blood transfusions
- SICKLE CELL
ANEMIA: A disease
(predominately in black individuals) where the RBC’s will sickle (change
shape from round to a sickle shape). These cells get clogged in the
blood vessel causing pain to the area not getting those cells oxygen
- ANEMIA:
Lack of iron in the diet will cause a lack of hemoglobin to pick up
needed oxygen that cells need. Anemic people feel sluggish and act
“lazy” due to lack of oxygen being delivered.
- LEUKEMIA:
WBC disease. Excessive numbers of WBC’s are being produced, but they
don’t work properly and cause problems with their overcrowding (about
300,000 per drop of blood vs. 8,000 in normal blood)
Chapter notes 19-3 (The
Lymphatic System)
-
LYMPH: Tissue fluid that
has diffused into the capillaries
-
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM:
Carries lymph through a network of lymph capillaries and vessels and
drains it into large veins near the heart; helps fight infections and
diseases.
-
LYMPHOCYTE: A type of
white blood cell that fights infection.
-
LYMPH NODE: Bean-shaped
organ found throughout the body that filters out microorganisms and
foreign materials taken up by the lymphocytes.
-
Chapter 20: Respiratory & Excretory
Chapter 20-1 notes (The
Respiratory System)
·
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Main purpose is to exchange gasses (Oxygen for Carbon Dioxide)
o
OXYGEN:
The gas in the air that our body needs to
live. Absorbed in our lungs and our blood carries it to our body
o
CO2:
Is the waste produced by our body using oxygen for food. This gas is toxic
and will hurt us if we don’t get rid of it. Our blood carries it to our
lungs to breathe out.
·
AIR:
We only absorb about 4% of the oxygen we breathe in, per breath, the rest
(all below) just gets exhaled out.
o
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